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The Mengzi 孟子 "Master Meng" is a collection of stories of the Confucian philosopher Meng Ke 孟軻 (385-304 or 372-289 BCE, latinized as "Mencius") and his discussions with rulers, disciples and adversaries. It is part of the Confucian canon Sishu 四書 "Four Books".
Master Meng Ke
Master Meng was an adherent of the Confucian tradition of Zisi 子思 (Kong Ji 孔伋), a grand-son of Confucius (Kongzi 孔子), and lived in the mid-4th century BCE (the dates range from 385-304 to 372-289), during the Warring States period 戰國 (5th cent.-221 BCE). Mengzi hailed from the small state of Zou 鄒 (modern Zouxian 鄒縣, Shandong). His father died when he was still a child. Mengzi's mother (called "Meng Mu" 孟母) is traditionally venerated as an example of excellent virtue. She moved their home three times to live in a better neighbourhood, and it was herself who taught the small Meng Ke the first lessons of virtual behaviour. Mengzi traveled from court to court and served the rulers of the states of Qi 齊 and Wei 魏, and those of the smaller states of Teng 滕, Xue 薛, and Song 宋. In Wei 魏 (at that time called Liang 梁) he served king Hui 梁惠王 (r. 379-335). Unfortunately most lords appreciated the teachings of the legalist or military advisers, who suggested strengthening the state by a powerful central government, while than Mengzi's teachings of a benevolent and human government seemed too theoretical for them. He was at least able to gain the confidence of the kings Hui of Liang and Xuan of Qi 齊宣王 (r. 342-324) for some time.
After his canonisation, Mengzi became the second grand master of Confucianism and was named together with Confucius himself as the pair Kong-Meng 孔孟. During the May Fourth movement 五四運動, Mengzi was attacked as the "second boss of the Confucian shop" (Kongjia dian er laoban 孔家店二老闆), contributing to the fossilization of Chinese society and the traditional Chinese world of thought.
The book Mengzi
Although the history Shiji 史記 states that the author of the Mengzi was Meng Ke himself (together with some of his adherents like Wan Zhang 萬章), it must be assumed that at least part of the book was compiled by his disciples after Meng Ke's death. It is seven chapters long, which are each divided in two parts. The titles of most chapters are the names of Meng Ke's conversational partners, like King Hui of Liang, Duke Wen of Teng 滕文公, Gunsun Chou 公孫丑, Wan Zhang or Gaozi 告子; the chapter Li Lou 離婁 is, in a method also known from the Confucian Analects Lunyu 論語, named after the first words (in this case, the name of a semi-historical person); the same is valid for the last chapter, Jinxin 盡心 "Exhausting all his heart". The imperial bibliography of the official dynastic history Hanshu 漢書 speaks of eleven chapters, which means that 4 chapters were later added. Indeed, Zhao Qi 趙岐 from the Later Han period 後漢 (25-220 CE) mentions the titles of four "outer" chapters (waishu 外書: Xingshan bian 性善辯 "Discussing the human nature", Wenshuo 文說 "Explanation from the literature", Xiaojing 孝經 "Classic of filial piety" [not the received Xiaojing!], and Weizheng 爲政 "On government") which are not included in the received version, probably because of their lower quality compared with the seven "inner chapters" (neipian 内篇). For a long time, the book Mengzi was seen as one of the many schools of thought (zhuzi 諸子) and was only classified as a Confucian treatise during the Tang period 唐 (618-907). It became a Confucian classic only during the Northern Song period 北宋 (960-1126), when it was integrated into the Jiujing 九經 "Nine Classics". The position of the book was consecrated by the Southern Song period 南宋 (1127-1279) Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi 朱熹, who made it part of the canonical "Four Books". From then on the book Mengzi was part of the canon to be studied for the state examinations.
The teachings of Mengzi
While Confucius was a kind of idealist, Meng Ke can be seen as more practical, and as the more aggressive of the two. Meng Ke did not shy away from conflicts with representants of other schools, and he even dared to criticize kings. He was, compared to Confucius, more explicit in the explanation of the term of "kindheartedness" or "humanity" (ren 仁). Humanity was, in his eyes, an instrument of a ruler, who dispised himself and saw himself as a servant to his people. He acted on behalf of the people, which was protected by Heaven. The personal behaviour of personal kindheartedness, which Confucius had spoken of, was thus by Mengzi extended into the field of government. A benevolent government was the true "way of the king" (wangdao 王道), expressed in low taxes, austerity in lifestyle, and sparingly used punishment. Rulers not exerting the Confucian way of the king had to be admonished by their ministers, and it was even the duty of the minister to remonstrance against cruelty in government, in worst case, even to kill the tyrant. The ruler himself had to be obedient to his virtual father, Heaven. If he did not exert a benevolent government, Heaven would express his anger by sending floods and natural disasters, and also directly through he people, which would leave the country of the tyrant, or rebel against him.
Another important philosophical issue of Mengzi is the goodness of human nature (ren xing shan 人性善). All humans have by nature a compassion (bu ren ren zhi xin 不忍人之心) for others and will not see them suffering. If a child falls into a well, everbody would instinctively hurry to save it. The ruler, accordingly, would not dare see his people suffering hunger and cold, while "his own stables are full of well-fed horses". The inherence of goodness makes it possible that everybody is able to become a perfect saint. The potential to become a sage ruler like Yao 堯 or Shun 舜, Mengzi says, is given to everybody, even without adhering to a teacher. Everybody possesses the natural access to moral values, like humanity (ren), righteousness (yi 義 "an instinct of what is right or appropriate"), a need for ritual and etiquette (li 禮), and knowledge (zhi 智) of what is good and what not. These four innate virtues (si de 四德) have to be nourished and raised, especially by persons of higher standing, i. e. the rulers of a state. The terms yi and zhi had only minor importance for Confucius. All four virtues have a concrete expression in human behaviour, the "four expressions of feeling" (si xin 四心) or "four expressions" (si duan 四端), namely compassion, feeling ashamed, giving precedence, and an instinct for right and wrong. Because everybody disposes of these feelings, they came be compared to the four limbs of the body (si ti 四體). Of these four, kindness and righteousness are the more important, the first being the feeling between two persons, and the latter the reverence towards a senior person. Kindness is a matter of the inner feelings, while righteousness is an outer expression towards the other. If the ruler acts kindheartedly and righteous, he will serve as a shining example to the whole people. The superior of the ruler is Heaven.
The book Mengzi is famous for the disputing force with which Meng Ke attacks his opponents, especially representants of the school of the Holy Farmer (Shen Nong 神農) that argued that everybody should engage in agriculture, in order to achieve an egalitarian society. Meng Ke likes to use parables to clarify his theories and to express simple, but crucial circumstances by analogies, like the people that is yearning for a good ruler like desiccated land for rain, or somebody who is looking at the point of a small hair instead of at the large balk. Overhasty methods are described in the allegory of the peasant helping his shoots to grow by lifting them up, and unappropriate criticizing others is described in the parable of a deserter running fifty paces laughing about a deserter running away a hundred paces wide. A man who used to daily steal a hen from his neighbour, promised not to steal a hen but once a month in the future, instead of instantly ending his misbehaviour. Another story speaks of a husband playing a rich man at home, while begging for alms when outside. A lot of these parables are very popular in China and have lost nothing of their attractiveness even today. The book Mengzi is a very important book contributing to the development of prose literature in ancient China.
Commentaries
The oldest commentators were Zhao Qi 趙岐 and Liu Xi 劉熙 from the Later Han period. Liu Xi's commentary, as well as that of the Liang period 梁 (502-557) scholar Qimu Sui 綦母邃, are lost. Only during the Northern Song period the Mengzi attracted the deeper interest of Confucian scholars. There is a commentary traditionally attributed to Sun Shi 孫奭, the Mengzi shu 孟子疏, which is included in the collection Shisanjing zhushu 十三經注疏. The most important commentator of the age of Neo-Confucianism was the Southern Song period scholar Zhu Xi 朱熹, who has written the commentary Mengzi zhangju jizhu 孟子章句集注, short Mengzi jizhu. The standard Qing period 清 (1644-1911) commentary is Jiao Xun's 焦循 Mengzi zhengyi 孟子正義.
Sources:
Shui Weisong 水渭松 (1986). "Mengzi 孟子", in: Zhongguo da baike quanshu 中國大百科全書, Zhongguo wenxue 中國文學, vol. 1, p. 537. Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe.
Wu Rongzeng 吳榮曾 (1992). "Mengzi 孟子", in: Zhongguo da baike quanshu 中國大百科全書, Zhongguo lishi 中國歷史, vol. 2, p. 657. Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe.
Xie Xianghao 謝祥皓, Liu Zongxian 劉宗賢 (1993). Zhongguo ruxue 中國儒學. Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe.
Yu Dunkang 余敦康 (1987). "Mengzi 孟子", in: Zhongguo da baike quanshu 中國大百科全書, Zhexue 哲學, vol. 1, p. 613. Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe.
| Contents |
1.-2.梁惠王 Liang Huiwang A-B
3.-4.公孫丑 Gongsun Chou A-B
5.-6.滕文公 Teng Wengong A-B
7.-8.離婁 Li Lou A-B
9.-10.萬章 Wan Zhang A-B
11.-12.告子 Gaozi A-B
13.-14.盡心 Jin Xin "Exhausting all his heart" A-B
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Exemplarious translation:
１．梁惠王章句上
孟子見梁惠王，王曰：「叟！不遠千里而來，亦將有以利吾國乎﹖」孟子對曰：「王何必曰『利』﹖ 亦有『仁義』而已矣。王曰『何以利吾國﹖』大夫曰『何以利吾家﹖』士庶人曰『何以利吾身﹖』上下 交征利，而國危矣。萬乘之國，弒其君者，必千乘之家；千乘之國，弒其君者，必百乘之家。萬取千焉， 千取百焉，不為不多矣。苟為後義而先利，不奪不饜。未有『仁』而遺其親者也；未有『義』而後其君者 也。王亦曰『仁義』而已矣，何必曰『利』﹖」
King Hui of Liang A
Mengzi went to see king Hui of Liang. The king said: "Venerable Sir, since you have not counted it far to come here, a distance of a thousand miles, may I presume that you are provided with counsels to profit my kingdom?"
Mengzi replied: "Why must your Majesty use that word 'profit'? What I am provided with, are counsels to benevolence and righteousness, and these are my only topics. If your Majesty say, 'What is to be done to profit my kingdom?' the great officers will say, 'What is to be done to profit our families?' and the inferior officers and the common people will say, 'What is to be done to profit our persons?' Superiors and inferiors will try to snatch this profit the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. In the kingdom of ten thousand chariots, the murderer of his sovereign shall be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In a kingdom of a thousand chariots, the murderer of his prince shall be the chief of a family of a hundred chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a hundred in a thousand, cannot be said not to be a large allotment, but if righteousness be put last, and profit be put first, they will not be satisfied without snatching all. There never has been a benevolent man who neglected his parents. There never has been a righteous man who made his sovereign an after consideration. Let your Majesty also say, 'Benevolence and righteousness, and let these be your only themes.' Why must you use that word 'profit'?"
王坐於堂上，有牽牛而過堂下者。王見之曰：『牛何之﹖』對曰：『將以釁鐘。』王曰：『舍之！吾不忍 其觳觫，若無罪而就死地。』對曰：『然則廢釁鐘與﹖』曰：『何可廢也﹖以羊易之。』
"The king was sitting aloft in the hall, when a man appeared, leading an ox past the lower part of it. The king saw him, and asked 'Where is the ox going?' The man replied, 'We are going to consecrate a bell with his blood.' The king said, 'Let it go. I cannot bear its frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the place of death.' The man answered, 'Shall we then omit the consecration of the bell?' The king said, 'How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep.'"
３．公孫丑章句上
孟子曰：「人皆有不忍人之心。先王有不忍人之心，斯有不忍人之政矣。以不忍人之心，行不忍人 之政，治天下可運之掌上。所以謂人皆有不忍人之心者，今人乍見孺子將入於井，皆有怵惕惻隱之心； 非所以內交於孺子之父母也，非所以要譽於鄉黨朋友也，非惡其聲而然也。由是觀之，無惻隱之心 非人也，無羞惡之心非人也，無辭讓之心非人也，無是非之心非人也。
Gongsun Chou A
Mengzi said: "All men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others. The ancient kings had this commiserating mind, and they, as a matter of course, had likewise a commiserating government. When with a commiserating mind was practiced a commiserating government, to rule the kingdom was as easy a matter as to make anything go round in the palm. When I say that all men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others, my meaning may be illustrated thus: even nowadays, if men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they will without exception experience a feeling of alarm and distress. They will feel so, not as a ground on which they may gain the favour of the child's parents, nor as a ground on which they may seek the praise of their neighbours and friends, nor from a dislike to the reputation of having been unmoved by such a thing. From this case we may perceive that the feeling of commiseration is essential to man, that the feeling of shame and dislike is essential to man, that the feeling of modesty and complaisance is essential to man, and that the feeling of approving and disapproving is essential to man. [bottom][top]
５．滕文公章句上
陳相見孟子，道許行之言曰：「滕君則誠賢君也；雖然，未聞道也。賢者與民並耕而食，饔飧而治。 今也滕有倉廩府庫，則是厲民而以自養也，惡得賢﹖」孟子曰：「許子必種粟而後食乎﹖」曰： 「然。」「許子必織布而後衣乎﹖」曰：「否，許子衣褐。」「許子冠乎﹖」曰：「冠。」曰： 「奚冠﹖」曰：「冠素。」曰：「自織之與﹖」曰：「否，以粟易之。」曰：「許子奚為不自織﹖」 曰：「害於耕。」曰：「許子以釜甑爨、以鐵耕乎﹖」曰：「然。」「自為之與﹖」曰：「否， 以粟易之。」「以粟易械器者，不為厲陶冶；陶冶亦以械器易粟者，豈為厲農夫哉﹖且許子何不為陶冶， 舍皆取諸其宮中而用之﹖何為紛紛然與百工交易﹖何許子之不憚煩﹖」曰：「百工之事，固不可耕且 為也。」「然則治天下獨可耕且為與﹖有大人之事，有小人之事。」
King Wen of Teng A
When Chen Xiang saw Xu Xing, he was greatly pleased with him, and, abandoning entirely whatever he had learned, became his disciple. Having an interview with Mengzi, he related to him with approbation the words of Xu Xing to the following effect: "The prince of Teng is indeed a worthy prince. He has not yet heard, however, the real doctrines of antiquity. Now, wise and able princes should cultivate the ground equally and along with their people, and eat the fruit of their labour. They should prepare their own meals, morning and evening, while at the same time they carry on their government. But now, the prince of Teng has his granaries, treasuries, and arsenals, which is an oppressing of the people to nourish himself. How can he be deemed a real worthy prince?"
Mengzi said: "I suppose that Xu Xing sows grain and eats the produce. Is it not so?" - "It is so", was the answer. - "I suppose also he weaves cloth, and wears his own manufacture. Is it not so?" - "No. Xu wears clothes of haircloth." - "Does he wear a cap?" - "Yes." - "What kind of cap?" - "A plain cap." - "Is it woven by himself?" - "No. He gets it in exchange for grain." - "Why does Xu not weave himself?" - "That would injure his husbandry." - "Does Xu cook his food in boilers and eartenware pans, and does he plough with an iron share?" - "Yes." - "Does he make those articles himself?" - "No. He gets them in exchange for grain." - "The getting those various articles", said Mengzi, "in exchange for grain, is not oppressive to the potter and the founder, and the potter and the founder in their turn, in exchanging their various articles for grain, are not oppressive to the husbandman. How should such a thing be supposed? And moreover, why does not Xu act the potter and founder, supplying himself with the articles which he uses solely from his own establishment? Why does he go confusedly dealing and exchanging with the handicraftsmen? Why does he not spare himself so much trouble?" - "The business of the handicraftsmen", Chen Xiang replied, "can by no means be carried on along with the business of husbandry." - Mencius resumed: "Then, it is the government of the kingdom which alone can be carried on along with the practice of husbandry? Great man have their proper business, and little men have their proper business."
７．離婁章句上
孟子曰：「規矩，方員之至也。聖人，人倫之至也。欲為君，盡君道；欲為臣，盡臣道，二者皆法堯舜 而已矣。不以舜之所以事堯事君，不敬其君者也；不以堯之所以治民治民，賊其民者也。孔子曰： 『道二，仁與不仁而已矣。』暴其民甚，則身弒國亡，不甚，則身危國削，名之曰『幽』、『厲』， 雖孝子慈孫，百世不能改也。《詩》云：『殷鑒不遠，在夏后之世。』[3.3.1.(255)蕩] 此之謂也。」
Li Lou A
Mengzi said: "The compass and square produce perfect circles and squares. By the sages, the human relations are perfectly exhibited. He who as a sovereign would perfectly discharge the duties of a sovereign, and he who as a minister would perfectly discharge the duties of a minister, have only to imitate - the one Yao, and the other Shun. He who does not serve his sovereign as Shun served Yao, does not respect his sovereign; and he who does not rule his people as Yao ruled his, injures the people. Confucius said, 'There are but two courses, which can be pursued, that of virtue and its opposite." A ruler who carries the oppression of his people to the highest pitch, will himself be slain, and his kingdom will perish. If one stop short of the highest pitch, his life will notwithstanding be in danger, and his kingdom will be weakened. He will be called 'The Dark' or 'The Cruel' [like the two bad kings of Zhou], and though he may have filial sons and affectionate grandsons, they will not be able in a hundred generations to change the designation. This is what is intended in the words of the Book of Poetry, 'The beacon of Yin is not remote, it is in the time of the last sovereign of Xia.'"
８．離婁章句下
公都子曰：「匡章，通國皆稱不孝焉。夫子與之遊，又從而禮貌之，敢問何也 ﹖」孟子曰：「世俗所謂不孝者五：惰其四支，不顧父母之養，一不孝也；博弈、好飲酒， 不顧父母之養，二不孝也；好貨財、私妻子，不顧父母之養，三不孝也；從耳目之欲， 以為父母戮，四不孝也；好勇鬥狠，以危父母，五不孝也。章子有一於是乎﹖夫章子， 子父責善而不相遇也。責善，朋友之道也。父子責善，賊恩之大者。夫章子豈不欲有夫妻子母之屬哉﹖ 停是罪於父，不得近；出妻屏子，終身不養焉。其設心以為不若是，是則罪之大者。是則章子已矣。」
Li Lou B
The disciple Gongdu said: "Throughout the whole kingdom everybody pronounces Kuang Zang unfilial. But you, Master, keep company with him, and moreover treat him with politeness. I venture you to ask why you do so."
Mengzi replied: "There are five things which are pronounced in the common usage of the age to be unfilial. The first is laziness in the use of one's four limbs, without attending to the nourishment of his parents. The second is gambling and chess-playing, and being fond of wine, without attending to the nourishment of his parents. The third is being fond of good and money, and selfishly attached to his wife and children, without attending to the nourishment of his parents. The fourth is following the desires of one's ears and eyes, so as to bring his parents to disgrace. The fifth is being fond of bravery, fighting and quarreling so as to endanger his parents. Is Zhang guilty of any one of these things? Now between Zhang and his father there arose disagreement, he, the son, reproving his father, to urge him to what is good. To urge another to what is good by reproofs is the way of friends. But such urging between father and son is the greatest injury to the kindness, which should prevail between them. Moreover did not Zhang wish to have in his family the relationships of husband and wife, child and mother? But because he had offended his father, and was not permitted to approach him, he sent away his wife, and drove forth his son, and all his life receives no cherishing attentionfor them. He settled it in his mind that if he did not act in this way, his would be one of the greatest of crimes. Such and nothing more is the case of Zhang."
Translated by James Legge (1960). The Chinese Classics in Five Volumes. 2. The Works of Mencius. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
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Chinese literature according to the four-category system
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