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The Baihutong delun 白虎通德論 is a kind of literary protocol of the discussions on the relationships between politics, cosmology and philosophy that were held in 58 CE in the White Tiger Hall 白虎觀. The discussants were high state officials and Confucian scholars, as experts in the Five Confucian Classics. Questions about theology, superstition and the relationship between Heaven and Man were not new at that time. People like Wang Chong 王充 (27- 97 AD; wrote Lunheng 論衡) and Huan Tan 桓譚 (24 BC-56 AD; wrote Xinlun 新論) already had opposed against the superstituous thinking of their contemporarians.
With the restauration of the Han dynasty 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) in 25 CE emperor Guangwu 漢光武帝 (r. 25-57) allowed the tradition of apocryphal texts (chenwei 讖緯) to be integrated in the canon of Confucian classics taught at the imperial state academy. The professors teaching the Confucian classics were furthermore not united in the question which versions of the classics had to be used for teaching, either the so-called new text classics (jinwen jing 今文經) which were geared to cosmological interpretetion via the classics, or the old texts classics (guwen jing 古文經) which had a more worldly approach with a philological tradition.
During the Former Han period 前漢 (206 BC-8 CE) a first conference about the canon of Confucian classics had been held in the Shiqu Hall 石渠閣. Emperor Zhang 漢章帝 (r. 75-88) decided to convoke a similar conference at the White Tiger Hall in Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang, Henan). It was presided by the emperor himself. The main discussants were Wei Ying 魏應, Chunyu Gong 淳于恭, Jia Kui 賈逵, Ban Gu 班固 and Yang Zhong 楊終. The questions to the matters to disputed were handed in to Wei Ying who had them presented to the emperor. Chunyu Gong answered as representant of the Confucian scholars. The emperor then decided which answer should be adopted as the imperial standard. The conference lasted over a few months before all questions were dealt with.
The main result of the discussions in the White Tiger Hall was the adaption of the new text classics as the orthodox versions, as had been already suggested by Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 a century earlier, as well as the inclusion of apocryphal texts as interpretive sources. The correlative theories of the Five Phases and of yin-yang thus became more stable as a basis for natural science, social science, the governmental system and the understanding of human relationships.
The book Baihutong is an essence of Han period thought. Heaven and Earth were seen as the parents of the ruler, the "Son of Heaven" (tianzi 天子). Heaven was the superior judge over the moral comportment especially of the ruler. If the ruler followed the will of Heaven by exerting a virtuous government, he is benefitted by a long rule and the subjects' support. If the ruler was disobedient to Heaven's will, earthquake, disasters and anormal events contradicting the natural flux of seasonal and phenological changes would give him hints of his misbehavior, and in the end, the people would rebell and the ruler or his dynasty be wiped away. A ruler exerting politics of humanity and righteousness would have Heaven's religious authority or the "Heavenly mandate" (tianming 天命). All things under heaven followed the natural Heavenly order. This order began with the different grades for governmental officials and ends with the social order inside the families, the ancestor being the highest person in a household, after him the father, the son, the wifes, and then the daughters. What was therefore to acheive is a natural harmony between the nature and man, and the state and its subjects. The discussions of the White Tiger Hall were therewith a mirror of the Confucian society. All patterns and rules of the social order serve to facilitate the human relationships.
The book Baihutong was compiled by the historian Ban Gu 班固 and has the full title Baihutong delun 白虎通德論 "Virtuous discussions held in the White Tiger [Hall]", or Baihu tongyi 白虎通義 "Comprehensive meanings [as discussed] in the White Tiger [Hall]".
Source: Bao Zunxin 包遵信 (1992). "Baihuguan huiyi 白虎觀會議", in: Zhongguo da baike quanshu 中國大百科全書, Zhongguo lishi 中國歷史, vol. 1, p. 17. Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe.
| Contents |
1.爵 Jue Ranks
2.號 Hao Titles
3.謚 Shi Posthumous titles
4.五祀 Wusi The Five offerings
5.禮稷 Liji Ritual and offerings to the Lord of Millet
6.禮樂 Liyue Ritual and music
7.封公侯 Feng Gonghou Enfeoffment
8.京師 Jingshi The Capital
9.五行 Wuxing The Five Phases
10.三軍 Sanjun The three hosts
11.誅伐 Zhufa Execution and punitive expeditions
12.諫諍 Jianzheng Admonishing and remonstrating the ruler
13.鄉射 Xiangshe The district archery contest
14.致仕 Zhishi Retiring from office
15.辟雍 Biyong The Central Academy
16.災變 Zaibian Natural disasters
17.耕桑 Gengsang Tilling and weaving
18.封禪 Fengshan The fengshan offerings to Heaven and Earth
19.巡狩 Xunshou Imperial inspection tours
20.考黜 Kaochu Examination and degradation
21.王者不臣 Wangzhe Bu Chen Whom the king does not consider his subjects
22.蓍龜 Shigui Divining by milfoil and tortoise bones
23.聖人 Shengren Sages
24.八風 Bafeng The eight winds
25.商賈 Shangjia Merchants and vendors
26.文質 Wenzhi Ritual rresents
27.三正 Sanzheng The three rectifications
28.三教 Sanjiao The three instructions
29.三綱六紀 Sangang Liuji The three major and six minor principles
30.情性 Qingxing Temperament and character
31.壽命 Shouming Life and Heavenly Mandate
32.宗族 Zongzu Ancestors and kinship
33.姓名 Xingming Names and surnames
34.天地 Tiandi Heaven and Earth
35.日月 Riyue Sun and moon
36.四時 Sishi The four seasons
37.衣裳 Yichang Clothes and bobes
38.五刑 Wuxing The five punishments
39.五經 Wujing The Five Classical Writings
40.嫁娶 Jiaqu Wedding and nuptial customs
41.紼冕 Fumian Cords and caps
42.喪衣 Sangyi Mourning garments
43.崩薨 Benghong Dead and burial of the emperor and the feudal lords
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Exemplarious translation:
１．爵
天子者，爵稱也．爵所以稱天子者，何也？王者，父天母地，為天之子也．故《援神契》曰：「天覆地載，謂之天子．上法斗極．」．．．《王制》曰：「王者之制祿，爵凡五等，謂公、侯、伯、子、男．」此周制也．所以名之為公、侯，何？公者，通公正無私之意也．侯者，候也，候逆順也．．．伯者，百也．子者，孳也，孳孳無己也．男者，任也．．．
About Ｒanks
"Son of Heaven" is a rank designation. The king's father is the Heaven, his mother the Earth, and he is the Son of Heaven. For this reason, the Yuanshenqi ("Contract with the Spirit's aid") says: "The Son of Heaven is protected by Heaven and supported by the Earth. He is subject to the highest rules of the Northern Pole." [...] The Wangzhi ("Regulations of the King") chapter of the Liji ("Records of Rites") says: "The regulations of the King comprise five ranks of nobility: Duke, Marquis, Count, Viscount and Baron." These are the nobility ranks of the Zhou Dynasty. The rank of Duke (Gong) means, that the bearer is serving the public (gong) without thinking of himself. The rank of Marquis (Hou) means, that he is acting according to the actual situation (hou), either following it or opposing it. [...] The rank of Count (Bo) means, he commands hundred (bai, old: bo). The rank of Viscount (Zi) means, the bearer is working with sustained diligence (zi) without thinking of himself. The rank of Baron (Nan) means, he is bearing (ren, old: jan) his duty. [...]
２．號
帝、王者，何？號也．號者，功之表也．所以表功，名德，號令臣下者也．德合天地者，稱帝．仁義合者，稱王．．．帝者，天號．王者，五行之稱也．皇者，何謂也？亦號也．皇，君也，美也，大也．天之惣美大也，時質故惣之也．號之為皇者，煌煌人莫違也．．．
About Ｔitles
"Emperor" and "King" are titles, an expression of merit, a tool to express merit, to enlighten the virtue of the bearers and to give orders to ministers and subordinaries. A ruler whose virtue corresponds to the will of Heaven and Earth, can be called "Emperor", and a ruler whose humanity and righteousness corresponds to the will of Heaven and Earth, can be called "King". [...] The title of Emperor is bestowed by Heaven, the title of King is following the Five Phases. The title of "August" (Emperor) is a similar title, "August" means a Lord, a beautiful (concerning virtues) and great person. Heaven admires his beauty and greatness, because it comes to the right time and with the appropriate quality. Bestowing the title of the August means, that the bearer is bright and scintillating, and no person would dare to oppose him. [...]
１６．災變
天所以有災變，何？所以遣告人君，覺悟其行，欲令悔過修德，深思慮也．《援神契》曰：「行有點缺，氣逆于天，情感變出，以戒人也．」．．．
Natural desaster and calamities
Heaven uses natural desasters and calamities as a means to enlighten the lord of men of his (wrong) behaviour, to make him repenting, thinking about himself and to ameliorate his behaviour. The Yuanshenqi ("Contract with the Spirit's aid") says: "If (the ruler's) good virtue is lacking in some points, and his spirit is opposing Heaven's will, Heaven will express this feelings misbehaviour to admonish the ruler." [...]
２９．三綱六紀
三綱者，何謂也？謂君臣、父子、夫婦也．六紀者，謂諸父、兄弟、族人、諸舅、師長、朋友也．故君為臣綱，父為子綱，夫為婦綱．又曰：敬諸父兄，六紀道行，諸舅有義，族人有序，昆弟有親，師長有尊，朋友有舊．何謂綱紀？綱者，張也，紀者，理也．大者為綱，小者為紀，所以彊理上下，整齊人道也．
The Three Major and Six Minor Principles
The Three Main Ropes (gang) are the relationships between lord and minister, between father and son, and between man and wife. The Six Binding Threads (ji) are the relationships between father and father, between older and younger brother, between clanspeople, between uncle and uncle, between teacher and teacher, and between friend and friend. The lord is the guideline for his minister, the father the guideline for his son, and the man a guideline for his wife. We can also say, to respect father and elder brother, is a behaviour representing the thread for the right way of social order. Uncles have a righteous position, clansmen have a different grade, elder and younger brothers have an intimate relationship, teachers venerate each other, and friends have common remembrances. The Main Ropes serve to extend and to display the social relationships, the Binding Threads serve to create order between these relationships. The big Ropes and the small Threads will differentiate and arrange upper and lower and will level the human ways on the appropriate path.
Translated by Tjan Tjoe Som (1952). Po Hu T'ung: the Comprehensive Discussion in the White Tiger Hall. Leiden: Brill.
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Chinese literature according to the four-category system
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