The Empire of Qin as a Modern State - Overcoming the Warring States - Personal Intrigues - The Downfall of Qin - The War between Chu and Han Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Qin Dynasty's homelands were in the far west, between nomadic tribes, giving it probably more warfare energy than the people of the states in the Yellow River basin. One king of Qin is said to have died from an injury sustained during a contest in lifting a bronze vessel. The Empire of Qin as a Modern State The victory over the many warring states was not only due to the military superiority of the Qin armies but was acheived by many reforms of the state itself. The great legist reformer of the Qin dukedom was Lord Shang Yang 商君鞅 (d. 338 BC) who served as an advisor and as chancellor to Duke Xiao 秦孝公. Under his guidance, the capital was moved to Xianyang, and the country was divided in counties (xian 縣), administered by a magistrate (ling 令). Thus, the feudal system of an almost independent local aristocracy was given up in favour of of a centralized bureaucracy. The officers, high and low, were punished and rewarded according to their conduct. Shang Yang revised the tax system (taxation in kind instead of labour services) and made it possible to everyone to buy and to sell land. Peasantry and army became the centers of social politics. The more peasants worked the land, the richer the country and the stronger the army (in which the peasants had to serve). At least theoretically, a group responsibility of the population was introduced. Last but not least, weights and measures, coins and the track width of the roads were all standardized. A line of mighty chancellors kept on the reforms of Shang Yang to strenghten the state of Qin. The most important men of the last period before the unification are the former merchant Lü Buwei 呂不韋, said to have been the real father of the First Emperor and chancellor for a few years, the chancellor Li Si and the legist theoretician Han Fei 韓非. Overcoming the Warring States The incentive of the Qin rulers may just have been to strenghten their own state, not to unify the whole territory of China under their own rule. Only the course of events made it possible to a military superior Qin to subdue the warring states one by one. The first military step was the seizure of the two states of Shu 蜀 and Ba 巴 in the Sichuan basin. From this base, it was possible to have a second flank to attack Chu, the stongest enemy of Qin. In 230 BC, Qin destroyed Hann 韓, 228 Zhao 趙, 225 Wei 魏, 223 Chu 楚, 222 Yan 燕 and finally Qi 齊 in 221. The domain of the powerless Zhou kings already had fallen to Qin in 256. The reasons for the triumph of Qin over the other states are manifold. The geographical location of the half-barbarian state of Qin between protecting mountains and the Yellow River gave it enough chance to build up its strengh unchallenged. The building of a great canal made it possible to extend the irrigation system and to enhance the very important agricultural production. Esteeming manly virtues and disdaining the sophisticated culture of the eastern states created a state ready to engage in a ruthless war. The cultural backwardness, on the other side, made it necessary to the Qin rulers to employ foreign people with knowledge, especially in modern administration questions. Administration laws were codified and thus were more objective in difference to a personal rule. Personal Intrigues On the sudden death of the First Emperor during his fifth inspection travel, the eunuch Zhao Gao 趙高 and chancellor Li Si 李斯 charged a plot against the crown prince Fusu 夫蘇. They wrote a faked letter to Fusu by what the deceased emperor ordered Fusu to commit suicide, and his younger brother Huhai 胡亥, the deceased emperor's favorite, was installed as Second Emperor. Already in his first year, rebellions of the old nobility and peasentry broke out. Zhao Gao arrested Li Si and let him suffer the five mutilating punishments. The emperor killed himself of fear of the rebellions, and Zhao Gao installed a child as king of Qin, only to be stabbed to death by the nameless king himself. The Kid submitted to Liu Bang 劉邦 who occupied the Qin capital Xianyang 咸陽 But the tyrant Xiang Yu 項羽 sacked Xianyang and executed the Kid. In this way the glorious Qin Dynasty came to an unfamous end. The Downfall of Qin Except personal reasons, the main factor for the downfall of the Qin Dynasty was the overextension of peasant labour that had not only to work the fields but also to built roads, walls and to serve in the military. Marxists are happy to find here the first peasant uprising in Chinese history that was soon joined by the lower aristocracy. The dissolving empire ended in a decade-long civil war of nobles and half-nobles that proclaimed themselves kings (Chen She, King Yin of Chu 楚隱王陳涉; Wu Chen, King of Zhao 趙王武臣; Xiang Liang, King of Wu 吳王項梁; Tian Dan, King of Qi 齊王田儋; Han Guang, King of Yan 燕王韓廣). This war ended with the defeat of Xiang Yu 項羽, "Hegemonial King of West Chu" (Xi-Chu Bawang) 西楚霸王 by Liu Bang 劉邦, King of Han 漢, who then founded the dynasty with the same name, inheriting the whole administration structure of the Qin empire. The War between Chu and Han In the year 209 BC, several leaders rose against the suppressive government of Qin. But only two of them, Xiang Yu 項羽 (Xiang Ji 項籍), a descendant of the Chu general Xiang Yan 項燕, and a local official named Liu Bang 劉邦 "Duke of Pei" 沛公 were able to gain substantive power. Between the years 206 and 202, a war of decision took place and left the way free for Liu Bang, the founder of Han Dynasty. The events of these years were recorded in an often cited, but lost annal book with the title "Spring and Autumn of Chu and Han" Chu Han Chunqiu 楚漢春秋. The first table gives an overview of the rebels against Qin from 209 to 206: Chu 楚 Chen She, Chu Yinwang 楚隱王陳涉, and his opponent Xiang Qiang 襄彊 as kings of Chu, later Jing Gou 景駒 and Xin, Chu Huaiwang 楚懷王心 called Yidi 義帝 "Righteous Emperor", a grandson of the last king of Chu (enthroned by Xiang Liang). Xiang Yu divides Chu into four kingdoms: West Chu 西楚, Hengshan 衡山, Linjiang 臨江, and Jiujiang 九江. 吳廣 Xiang 項 Xiang Liang, Lord Wuxin 武信君項梁; his son Xiang Yu 項羽 becomes ruler of Lu 魯 Zhao 趙 Wu Chen 武臣 king of Zhao; later Xie 趙王歇; Xiang Yu divides Zhao into Zhao and Dai 代. Qi 齊 Tian Dan 田儋 king of Qi; later Tian Jia 田假 and his opponent Tian Shi 田市; other oppenents are Tian An 田安 and Tian Rong 田榮. Xiang Yu divides Qi into the kingdoms of Linzi 臨淄, Jibei 濟北 and Jiaodong 膠東. Han 漢 Liu Bang, Duke of Pei 沛公, becomes Marquis Wuan 武安侯. Xiang Yu divides this area into the kingdoms of Han 漢, Yong 雍, Sai 塞 and Di 翟. Yan 燕 Han Guang 韓廣 king of Yan, then of Liaodong 遼東; killed by Zang Tu 臧荼; Xiang Yu divided this area into the kingdoms of Yan and Liaodong. Wei 魏 Wei Jiu 魏咎 king of Wei, followed by his brother Wei Bao 魏豹; this territory is divided into the kingdoms of Wei and Yin 殷. Hann 韓 Cheng, King of Hann 韓王成; Xiang Yu divided his territory into Hann and Henan 河南. Xiang Yu kills the last king of Qin, sacks the capital Xianyang 咸陽 and installs new kingdoms under his rule as Hegemonial King of West-Chu (Xi-Chu Bawang) 西楚霸王. The following table covers the years from 206 to 202. There are two persons of the same name: King Hann Xinn 韓王信 and the general Hann Xin 韓信 (called Marquis Huaiyin 淮陰侯). Chu 楚 Xiang Yu kills Chu Huaiwang 楚懷王. Xi-Chu 西楚 Hegemonial King Xiang Yu; at Gaixia 垓下 defeated by Liu Bang; Xiang Yu kills himself. For a short time in 202, general Hann Xin 韓信 is King of Chu (degraded to the rank of Marquis Huaiyin 淮陰侯 in 201; rebelled and executed in 197). Hengshan 衡山 King Wu Rui 吳芮; surrenders to Han; installed as King of Changsha 長沙 in 202. Xiang 項 (Linjiang 臨江) King Gong Ao 共敖, later his son Gong Xiang 共驩 (Wei 尉) in 204; dethroned by Han in 202. Jiujiang 九江 King Ying Bu 英布; surrenders to Han in 204; reinstalled in 203. Zhao 趙 (Changshan 常山) King Zhang Er 張耳; surrenders to Han in 206. Zhao Xie 趙歇 King of Zhao; destroyed by Han in 204. In 203, Zhang Er 張耳 is reinstalled as king, followed by his son Zhang Ao 張敖 in 201. Dai 代 King Zhao Xie 趙歇; destroyed by Han. Zhao Xie becomes King of Zhao in 206 Chen Yu 陳餘 King of Dai, destroyed by Han in 204. Qi 齊 (Linzi 臨菑) King Tian Du 田都, later Tian Rong 田榮; Tian Jia 田假 is reinstalled by Xiang Yu, followed by his son Tian Guang 田廣; destroyed by Han in 203. Jibei 濟北 King Tian An 田安; destroyed by Qi. Jiaodong 膠東 King Tian Shi 田市; destroyed by Qi. Han 漢 King Liu Bang 劉邦; after his victory over Xiang Yu Emperor of Han in 202. Yong 雍 King Zhang Han 章邯; destroyed by Han in 205. Sai 塞 King Sima Xin 司馬欣; surrenders to Han in 206. Di 翟 King Dong Yi 董翳; surrenders to Han in 206. Yan 燕 King Zang Tu 臧荼; rebels against Han, is destroyed in 203; his follower is Lu Wan 盧綰 in 202. Liaodong 遼東 King Hann Guang 韓廣; destroyed by Yan. Wei 魏 (Xi-Wei 西魏) King Wei Bao 魏豹; surrenders to Han in 205 and is reinstalled as King of Wei; destroyed by Han in 205. Yin 殷 King Sima Ang 司馬卬; surrenders to Han in 205. Hann 韓 King Hann Cheng 韓成; later Zheng Chang 鄭昌. Liu Bang installs Hann Xinn 韓信 as king. Hann Xinn becomes King of Taiyuan 太原 in 201. Henan 河南 King Shen Yang 申陽; surrenders to Han 206. Green are the kingdoms surrendering to Han, the red kingdoms were destroyed by Han. Qi has conquered Jiaodong and Jibei, Yan conquered Liaodong. The decisive battle was in Gaixia 垓下 (near modern Huaiyang 淮陽/Henan).

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