Northern Wei Dynasty 北魏 (386-534)

The Northern Wei Dynasty, Beiwei 北魏 (386-534), also called Later Wei (Houwei 後魏), was one of the Northern Dynasties Beichao 北朝 (386-581) that ruled over northern China during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. It was founded by Tuoba Gui, who was chieftain of the Taɣbač (Ch. Tuoba 拓跋), a tribe of the Xianbei 鮮卑 people. A precursor state, Dai 代 (315-376), was destroyed by the empire of the Former Qin 前秦 (351-394)

The Foundation of the Northern Wei Empire and the Reunification of North China

When Tuoba Gui 拓跋珪 (Emperor Daowu 魏道武帝, r. 376/386-408) founded a Tuoba state in the form of the (new) kingdom of Dai, he dissolved the tribal organization, settled the Xianbei people on land, and initiated the transition from a clan-based system to a territorial administrative structure. This also marked a shift from a nomadic economy to an agricultural one.

In 396 CE, after Tuoba Gui captured the province of Bingzhou 并州 (approx. modern-day Shanxi) from the empire of the Later Yan 後燕 (384-409), he established central government institutions, appointed officials according to the traditional Chinese system, and granted noble titles such as duke, marquis, and installed formal generals. For central government positions below the rank of Secretarial Court Gentlemen (shangshu lang 尚書郎), and for local positions such as regional inspectors (cishi 刺史) and governors (taishou 太守), persons were appointed who had obtained a certain education in the sense of the Confucian system.

In 406, an order was issued for each province to be controlled by three regional inspectors, each commandery (jun 郡) to have three governors, and each district to have three magistrates (lingzhang 令長). One of them would be a member of the royal clan of the Tuoba dynasty, and the others would be either common Xianbei persons or Han Chinese.

Faced with the reality that regional with Han-Chinese populations were controlled by powerful clans (menfa 門閥) who resided in fortified estates (wubao 塢堡), the Northern Wei government relied on these clan leaders as pillars of local governance. A system of local administration by clan heads (zongzhu duhu 宗主督護) was established, where local clan leaders acted as overseers of their regions. They were responsible for collecting taxes and levying military service and labour (yaoyi 徭役), effectively functioning as the grassroots-level local authorities.

Tuoba Gui implemented policies to encourage and promote farming and agricultural production. In 394, after defeating two branches of the Xiongnu 匈奴 headed by Liu Kuren 劉庫仁 (d. 384), and Liu Weichen 劉衛辰 (d. 391), respectively, and occupying the region of Wuyuan 五原 (northwest of modern-day Baotou 包頭, Inner Mongolia) to the Guyang Pass 稒陽塞 (east of modern Baotou), he ordered to create large-scale military-agricultural settlements (tuntian 屯田) in the area to reconstruct the war-ridden economy. This proved to be very effective, and the economy in north China consolidated.

After defeating Later Yan, in 398, Tuoba Gui forcibly relocated several hundred thousand Chinese and other ethnic laborers from Later Yan territory to the area around Pingcheng 平城 (modern-day Datong 大同, Shanxi). Land was allocated to them based on the number of people in each household, and they were provided with oxen and farming tools to develop agricultural production. As a result, the economic strength of the state continued to grow.

In 409, Tuoba Gui died, and his son Tuoba Si 拓跋嗣 (Emperor Mingyuan 北魏明元帝, r. 409-423) succeeded him. During his reign, Emperor Mingyuan launched military campaigns against the Liu-Song empire 劉宋 (420-479) in south China and seized most of the regions south of the Yellow River, including the provinces of Sizhou 司州, Yanzhou 兗州, and Yuzhou 豫州.

In 423, Emperor Mingyuan died, and his son Tuoba Tao 拓跋燾 (known as Emperor Taiwu of Wei 北魏太武帝, r. 423-451) ascended the throne. He successively conquered the states of Xia 夏 (407-431) and Northern Yan 北燕 (409-436), and 439, he destroyed the Northern Liang 北涼 (398-439/460), thus completing the unification of north China. This ended over a century of fragmentation among the Sixteen States 十六國 (300~430) and marked the beginning of the Northern Dynasties period 北朝 (386~581).

In 449, Emperor Taiwu personally led a massive army to defeat the federation of the Rouran 柔然, forcing them to retreat further north and eliminating a long-standing threat to Northern Wei. He then marched southward, advancing all the way to Guabu 瓜步 (southeast of modern-day Luhe 六合 , Jiangsu). At this point, the territory of Northern Wei extended north to the Gobi Desert, west to the eastern part of present-day Xinjiang, northeast to the Liao River 遼河, and south to the Yangtze and Huai Rivers.

Governance and Politics of the Northern Wei

Although the society of the Xianbei transitioned into a system similar to the Chinese one, the early Northern Wei still retained the use of slavery. Captives taken during wars were often enslaved and awarded to princes, nobles, and soldiers with military merit to perform agricultural and handicraft labor.

The taxation system of the Northern Wei had some special aspects not found in the Chinese states. In regions where the clan overseer system was implemented, the average annual household tax (hudiao 戶調) included two bolts of silk, two jin 斤 (see weights and measures) of cotton, one jin of raw silk, and twenty shi 石 of millet, plus a supplemental local tax of one additional bolt and two zhang 丈 of silk. Temporary levies were arbitrarily added, and households were sometimes required to provide thirty to fifty shi of millet at once.

At the time, officials did not receive regular salaries, leading to widespread corruption, bribery, and predatory lending. During Emperor Taiwu's reign, for example, General Gongsun Gui 公孫軌 (391-441) went to Shangdang 上黨 (north of present-day Changzhi 長治, Shanxi) with "only a horse and whip", but returned with a convoy of over a hundred carts—highlighting rampant profiteering.

The Tuoba rulers enforced ethnic discrimination policies. In wartime, conscripted soldiers from various ethnic groups were sent to charge in the front lines, while elite Xianbei cavalry drove them forward from behind. When Emperor Taiwu besieged Xuyi 盱眙 (in today's Jiangsu province), he even wrote to a letter to Zang Zhi 臧質 (400-454), the leading general of the Liu-Song empire, saying that Zang may kill the people trying to storm the city because they were not Xianbei people, and killing them would prevent them from rebelling in the future.

To suppress uprisings by other ethnic groups, Northern Wei set up military garrisons in areas where Di 氐, Qiang 羌, and the Lushui Hu 盧水胡 tribes lived. These garrisons imposed harsh rule. The Wei legal code (Beiwei lü 北魏律), furthermore, stipulated that those convicted of rebellion or treason would have their entire families—male and female, young and old—executed (see clan liability). In extreme cases, the ancient and brutal punishment method of quartering by chariots (chelie 車裂) was still used.

The brutal rule of early Northern Wei sparked continuous resistance and uprisings among various ethnic groups. The largest of these occurred in 445, when the Chinese, Di, Qiang, Tuoba, and other peoples living in mixed communities across what is now Shaanxi and Shanxi rose up under the leadership of Gai Wu 蓋吳 (417-446). This rebellion broke out in Xingcheng 杏城 (southwest of present-day Huangling 黃陵, Shaanxi). It quickly gained support from various oppressed groups, and the rebel army swelled to over 100,000. Its influence stretched from the Tongguan Pass 潼關 in the east to Qianlong 汧隴 (the border area between modern Shaanxi and Gansu) in the west. Gai Wu even sent envoys requesting military support from the Liu-Song dynasty in the south. Although the rebellion was eventually crushed a year later by Emperor Taiwu, who personally led the suppression, the joint struggle of various ethnic groups helped promote ethnic integration in north China.

The Reform Period under Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen

To ease social tensions, the rulers of Northern Wei sought to curb the power of local aristocrats, strengthen central authority, further check the Xianbei nobility, and forge closer alliances with Han-Chinese landlords. Empress Dowager Feng 馮太后 (438 or 441-490) and Emperor Xiaowen 北魏獻文帝 (r. 465-470) implemented a series of reforms to achieve these goals. The reform encompassed the fields administration, taxation, salaries of public servants, field distribution, local governance, and the sinification of Xianbei culture.

In 472, the government issued a rule that local governors and administrators with good performance could remain in office for extended periods and would be promoted one rank per year. Poor performance, regardless of how recently one took office, would lead to punishment or demotion. In 475, to resolve chaotic disputes over tax collection between provinces, commanderies, and districts, it was decreed that only the district level could collect taxes. During collection, the use of oversized measuring tools (large bushels, long rulers, heavy scales) was strictly forbidden. In 484, a salary system was introduced. Any corruption involving goods worth more than one bolt of silk would result in the death penalty. The following year, the Equal-field edict (Juntian ling 均田令) allowed local officials to receive designated "salary fields" (fengtian 俸田) according to their rank. These lands could not be sold and had to be handed over to successors upon leaving office. In 485, the Equal-field edict (see equal-field system) was issued, assigning land based on the recipient's age, gender, status (commoner or slave), and number of oxen for farming. Two types of land were granted, namely open fields (lutian 露田) for grain cultivation, which could not be sold and had to be returned to the state at age 70; and mulberry fields (sangtian 桑田) for growing trees (mulberry, elm, jujube), which did not need to be returned and could be bought and sold. Special considerations were given to the elderly, disabled, orphans, and widows.

In 485 or 486, the Three-Elders System (sanzhang zhi 三長制) replaced the clan overseer system. It organized rural populations into units of neighborhood (lin) 鄰, village (li 里), and township (dang 黨), limiting the power of local elites who had previously sheltered large numbers of households under their control (see yinhu 蔭户 "hidden households") and so deprived the Northern Wei state of large amounts of tax revenue. In 486, Emperor Xiaowen also reformed the rent and tax system. A household unit of one man and one woman was taxed one bolt of silk and two shi (about 200 litres) of grain annually. Unmarried individuals over age 15, laboring slaves (eight equaled one household), and 20 oxen were taxed as the equivalent of one household.

In 494, Emperor Xiaowen overcame opposition from conservative Xianbei elites with leading figures like Mu Tai 穆泰 (d. 496), Yuan Pi 元丕 (422-503), and Crown Prince Xun 太子恂 (483-497), and moved the capital from Pingcheng to Luoyang 洛陽 (in modern Henan province). Emperor Xiaowen actively reformed old Xianbei customs. He banned traditional Xianbei dress in favor of Chinese-style clothing, prohibited the Xianbei language at court, and mandated the use of Chinese. Xianbei nobles who died in Luoyang were no longer allowed to be transferred to Pingcheng for burial. Their "place of origin" (huguan 籍貫) was officially changed to Luoyang, and their Xianbei surnames were changed to Chinese ones. The imperial house, as well, changed the old Xianbei family name Tuoba to the Chinese name Yuan 元. The Xianbei aristocracy began to adopt Chinese-style aristocratic customs and intermarried with high-ranking Chinese families. During the Taihe reign-period 太和 (477-499), a formal bureaucratic ranking system was established with nine grades and 18 sub-grades (see jiupin 九品). In 485, noble families were ranked based on lineage and official titles. Eight prominent Xianbei surnames (Mu 穆, Lu 陸, He 賀, Liu 劉, Lou 樓, Yu 于, Ji嵇, and Wei 尉) were listed as top-ranking clans, considered on par with the Chinese "Four Surnames" (sixing 四姓, either the high-status families of Cui 崔, Lu 盧, Li 李, and Zheng 鄭, or more generally noble Chinese clans categorized by rank). This classification of noble surnames further unified the Xianbei and Chinese "aristocracies".

During the one and a half centuries of the Northern Wei dynasty's development, social productivity gradually recovered and improved. Since the end of the Western Jin dynasty 西晉 (265-316), northern China had suffered from the devastation of the Sixteen Kingdoms period — wars, famine, and widespread death had reduced the surviving population to less than 50 per cent. The Central Plains were left in a state of desolation. After the Northern Wei unified the north, strategic economic policy helped adjust social relations and significantly advance productivity. Especially after Emperor Xiaowen's reforms, the number of self-sustaining peasant farmers increased notably. By the reign of Emperor Xiaoming, the number of households in the country exceeded five million—more than double that of the best years under the Western Jin.

Both agriculture and handicrafts saw remarkable growth. The book Luoyang qielan ji 洛陽伽藍記, a description of Luoyang, noted that in the later Northern Wei period, the people were prosperous, lived in relative peace, and had basic security in food and clothing. In terms of handicrafts, there were significant advances in steelmaking in the late Northern Wei period. At the Qiankou ironworks 牽口冶 in Xiangzhou 相州 (modern Anyang 安陽, Henan), sharp steel blades were produced.

Commerce also gradually revived. Before the Taihe reign-period, northern China's commerce had almost come to a halt, and money barely circulated. During Emperor Xiaowen's reign, Yuan Shu 元淑 (Tuoba Shu 拓拔淑, 447-507) served as governor of Hedong 河東, where many locals abandoned farming to engage in trade. As commerce developed, currency circulation was restored. In 495, the "Taihe Five-zhu" coin (Taihe wuzhu 太和五銖) was minted and declared valid for circulation throughout the capital and all provinces and towns. During the reign of Emperor Xuanwu 北魏宣武帝 (r. 499-515), Luoyang's commercial sector flourished, and the city became an international commercial metropolis.

The End of the Northern Wei

With the development of the economy and the increasing sinification of the Xianbei nobility, the rulers of the Northern Wei became increasingly corrupt (according to Chinese historiography), and the governance gradually deteriorated. Prince Gaoyang 高陽王, Yuan Yong 元雍 (d. 528), was immensely wealthy. His residence and gardens were as luxurious as a royal palace, and he had as many as 6,000 slaves and 500 palace maidens. His daily expenses amounted to tens of thousands of coins. He competed with Prince Hejian 河間王, Yuan Chen 元琛, in a display of wealth and extravagance, surpassing the excesses of the notorious Western Jin figures Shi Chong 石崇 (249-300) and Wang Kai 王愷 (217-291).

When Yuan Hui 元暉 (465-519), known as the "Hungry Tiger General" (ehu jiangjun 餓虎將軍), served as the Minister of Personnel (libu shangshu 吏部尚書), he openly sold official positions, with fixed prices for promotions. The Ministry of Personnel became known as the "market for selling officials", and those who purchased positions were referred to as "daytime bandits". Local officials such as the governors and administrators of the provinces and commanderies also engaged in unscrupulous practices, gathering wealth without end. When collecting taxes, they resumed using large rulers, long bushels, and heavy scales, causing the people to pay higher taxes than stipulated by law. The heavy military and corvée labor burdens caused many peasants to lose their homes and livelihoods. Bankrupt farmers, in desperation, either sought refuge with the powerful and became dependent peasants again or escaped tax obligations by fleeing into monasteries, becoming monks or nuns.

The number of registered households under Northern Wei control thus continued to decrease, which affected the government's revenue. In response, the Northern Wei rulers intensified the exploitation of the peasants who had not yet fled and repeatedly conducted censuses to capture runaway peasants. This led to widespread peasant resistance.

In 515, a major uprising led by the monk Faqing 法慶 (d. 515) from the province of Jizhou 冀州 broke out. The rebels, followers of Mahayana Buddhism, publicly declared that "a new Buddha has been born to eliminate the old demons". The Northern Wei government had to mobilize a huge army of 100,000 troops to suppress the uprising.

In the early years of the Northern Wei, in order to prevent the Rouran from advancing southward, the government built the Great Wall, extending from Chicheng 赤城 (now part of Hebei) in the east to Wuyuan in the west. Military outposts were established at key locations along the border, including six key garrisons (liuzhen 六鎮). The commanders of these garrisons were often Xianbei nobles, with the soldiers mostly being members of the Tuoba tribes or descendants of powerful families from the Central Plains. They were considered the "heart of the country" and enjoyed special status. However, after the capital was moved to Luoyang, the importance of defense in the north began to decline. The status of the garrison commanders greatly diminished, and they were excluded from the "clean stream" (qingliu 清流, a term referring to the elite group). Their opportunities for promotion became difficult. As a result, they became increasingly dissatisfied with the Northern Wei government. The status of the garrison soldiers also continued to decline, and they were forced to live in poor conditions, often alongside exiled criminals and captives. They were subjected to harsh enslavement and exploitation by the garrison commanders and local landowners, and were classified as households of the military garrisons (fuhu 府戶). The soldiers developed strong class hatred towards the commanders, the powerful landowners, and the Northern Wei government.

Additionally, the Rouran occasionally raided the northern frontier, worsening the soldiers' living conditions. In 523, the Six Garrisons Rebellion broke out. Various ethnic groups from regions such as Guanlong 關隴 and Hebei also began to revolt. The multiple rebellions brought the Northern Wei regime to the brink of collapse. The local elite groups in the border regions took advantage of the chaos to expand their own power. Erzhu Rong 爾朱榮 (493-530) gathered the elite forces from the northern garrisons and refugees, quickly developing his influence.

In 528, Empress Dowager Hu 胡太后 (d. 528) poisoned Emperor Xiaoming and assumed regency. Erzhu Rong, using the excuse of avenging Emperor Xiaoming, marched on Luoyang, and in Heyin 河陰, he killed Empress Hu and over 2,000 state officials, seizing control of the government. After Erzhu's Rebellion (Erzhu shi zhi luan 爾朱氏之亂), internal strife continued. In 534, the Northern Wei split into two parts: the Eastern Wei 東東魏 (534-550), controlled by Gao Huan 高歡 (496-547), and the Western Wei 西魏 (535-556), under the control of Yuwen Tai 宇文泰 (505-556).

Technique and Culture in the Northern Wei Empire

During the Northern Wei period, significant advancements were made in science and culture. In the late Northern Wei period, Jia Sixie 賈思勰 (fl. 544) wrote the Qimin yaoshu 齊民要術, the oldest and most complete surviving agricultural treatise in China. It covers a wide range of topics such as agricultural techniques, horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry, aquaculture, and the processing of agricultural products. The work provides a comprehensive summary of the knowledge and technologies that had been developed since the Western Zhou Dynasty, contributing greatly to the understanding of ancient Chinese agriculture and handicrafts.

Li Daoyuan 酈道元 (466 or 472-527) compiled the Shuijingzhu 水經注, a geographical masterpiece that meticulously details the 1,252 rivers of China, explains the changes in watercourses, and traces the development of the country's territories. It also beautifully describes the natural landscapes and local folklore, as well as recording important aspects like mineral deposits, salt wells, hot springs, and volcanoes, making it an invaluable historical resource.

In literature, the folk songs of the Northern Dynasty reflect the integration of the northern peoples. These songs are characterized by their robust style, simple language, and sincere emotions. Representative works include the "Song of the Chile" (Chile ge 敕勒歌), the "Song of the Willow Tree" (Zhe yangliu ge 折楊柳歌, and the "Ballad of Mulan" (Mulan shi 木蘭詩). Yang Xuan's 楊衒之 (d. 555) Luoyang qielan ji is both a geographical classic and a literary work dedicated to the countless Buddhist monasteries built in the capital city.

During the Northern Wei period, sculpture art flourished, particularly in the form of rock-cut caves, which became a significant feature of Chinese art. These caves inherited the artistic traditions of the Han period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) while also being influenced by foreign styles, especially from Indian art. The rock-cut caves are spread over a vast area, extending from present-day Gansu in the west to Liaoning in the east. Some of the most famous and well-preserved examples of Northern Wei rock-cut caves include the Yungang Grottoes 雲崗石窟 in Datong; the Longmen Grottoes 龍門石窟 in Luoyang; the Mogao Grottoes 莫高窟 in Dunhuang, Gansu 敦煌; the Maiji Mountain Grottoes 麥積山石窟 in Tianshui 天水, Gansu; the Bingling Temple Grottoes 炳靈寺石窟 in Yongjing 永靖, Gansu; the Tianlong Mountain Ten Thousand Buddha Cave 天龍山萬佛洞 in Taiyuan 太原, Shanxi; and the Grottoes in Gongxian 鞏縣, Henan.

These caves not only showcase the advanced techniques and artistry of ancient Chinese sculptors but also embody the cultural and religious exchanges of the time. Today, they are considered invaluable treasures and serve as important cultural and historical landmarks that continue to attract admiration worldwide.