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Fu 賦, commonly translated as "rhapsody" or "prose poetry", is a genre in traditional Chinese literature.
The original meaning of the word fu was (besides "collecting taxes") reciting a text loudly, as can be seen in several statements in the history Zuozhuan 左傳. The bibliographical treatise Yiwen zhi 藝文志 in the official dynastic history Hanshu 漢書 explains the word fu as "reciting, but not singing" (bu ge er song 不歌而誦). Educated persons of the Spring and Autumn period 春秋 (770-5th cent. BCE) were expected to practise propriety according to the meaning of the Shijing 詩經 "Book of Songs". The Han-period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) scholar Mao Chang 毛萇 (Mao Junior 小毛公) said that expertise in fu "spreading out" (fu 賦) the meaning of the Songs was a requirement to become a grand master (dafu 大夫). In the Confucian Classic Zhouli 周禮 "Rites of the Zhou", the "six types of poems" (liu shi 六詩) are mentioned, which are called "six expressions" (liu yi 六義) in the Great Preface (Daxu 大序) of the Shijing. The Han period commentator Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (127-200) remarks that these six types were called feng 風 "airs", fu 賦 "extended", bi 比 "parables", xing 興 "attunement", ya 雅 "odes" and song 頌 "hymns". The term fu is explained with the meaning of "to spread out, to decorate" (puchen 鋪陳), in the sense of "describing the present politics in detail to make clear good and evil". All these explanations do not directly point to a concrete literary genre, but its use as a specific form of poem in the Shijing already paved the way for the later meaning. In his preface to his rhapsody Liangdu fu 兩都賦, the Han period writer and historian Ban Gu 班固 (32-92), therefore, says that fu was a branch of the ancient Songs (gu Shi zhi liu 古《詩》之流).
The late Warring States period 戰國 (5th cent.-221 BCE) philosopher Xunzi 荀子 wrote a chapter called Fu pian 賦篇, in which he says that a fu text might describe clouds (yun 雲), silkworms (can 蠶), rituals (li 禮), knowledge (zhi 知), or exhortations (zhen 箴). The bibliography Yiwen zhi says that these five were titles of rhapsodies once written by Xunzi. The rhapsodies described by Xunzi consisted of four-syllable verses but were written in a mix of prose and poetic style, with occasional rhymes. They were written in pairs of questions and answers that were often constructed like riddles (yinyu 隱語) and an indirect language.
The earliest genuine "rhapsodies" were the poems of the collection Chuci 楚辭, often translated as "Songs from the South", whose earliest texts like the Lisao 離騷 "Sorrow of parting" or the Jiuge 九歌 "Nine songs" were written during the late Warring States period. When the whole Chuci corpus was compiled by Liu Xiang 劉向 (77 BCE-6 CE) and Liu Xin 劉歆 (c. 50 BCE-23 CE) during the late Former Han period 前漢 (206 BCE-8 CE), they called them "rhapsodies of Qu Yuan" (Qu Yuan fu 屈原賦) and of Song Yu 宋玉 (fl. 298–263; Song Yu fu 宋玉賦). The poems of the Chuci collection are not rhapsodies in the proper sense, but they can be seen as the forerunners of the famous Han-period rhapsodies.
The literary history Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍 from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) points out the special character of rhapsodies. It is said that "rhapsody" (fu) means "to spread out" (pu 鋪), namely "to pave colours and to spread words" (pu cai chi wen 鋪采摛文). It is a genre that is used to express a specific purpose (xie zhi 寫志). Compared to the older genre of shi poetry 詩, the fu "rhapsodies" were much more descriptive and illustrative, discursive and peripatetic. This style is first found in the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu. Han-period rhapsodies describe landscapes, palaces, gardens, details of a hunt, precious objects, strange animals, flowers and trees, fishes and birds, chariots and standards used during imperial activities. The Jin-period 晉 (265-420) writer Lu Ji 陸機 (261-303), who wrote a rhapsody called Wenfu 文賦 "The rhapsody about literature", therefore says that shi poems went back to emotions and expressed them in an extravagant way. Still, rhapsodies focused on objects and described them in a brilliant way. Actually, this is only half the truth because rhapsodies, too, have the aim to express a particular sentiment or feeling. Qu Yuan, for instance, had deep sorrows about the future of his home country Chu 楚. The Jin-period 晉 (266-420) scholar Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐 (215-282), author of the rhapsody Sandu fu 三都賦, explains in his preface that during the late Warring States period, the old way of the kings was lost, and ancient styles were forgotten, so that the thinkers of that time could not but express their feelings and critiques in the novel genre of rhapsodies. This statement can be supported by the postface (Sima Qian's 司馬遷 autobiography) in the history Shiji 史記, where it is clearly said that the morale of rhapsodies was to bring forward criticism towards the extravagancies loved by the emperor and the court (qi zhi fengjian, gui yu wuwei 其指風諫，歸於無為)
Rhapsodies are not only overwhelming in their formal description of scenes and objects, but also in picturing the inner order of things. For both purposes, a flowery language was used, whose words were finely balanced and brought into a poetry-like pattern.
In the history of the Chinese rhapsody, several styles that can be discerned, namely the elegiac rhapsody (saofu 騷賦 or saoti fu 騷體賦), the Han rhapsody (Hanfu 漢賦), the couplet rhapsody (pianfu 駢賦), the rhymed rhapsody (lüfu 律賦), and the prose rhapsody (wenfu 文賦). Another classification speaks of the gufu "ancient rhapsodies" that includes the elegiac rhapsodies (saofu) and the Han-period types of the "greater rhapsodies" (dafu 大賦) and "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu 小賦). A third classification speaks of the old rhapsody types created by Xunzi, Qu Yuan, Song Yu, and those of the Former Han period.
The term "elegiac rhapsody" refers to the actual precursors of this genre, namely the Songs of the South (Chuci) with the poems of Qu Yuan, Song Yu and Jia Yi 賈誼 (200-168 BCE) as representative oeuvres, the former from the Warring States period, and the latter two from the Former Han. Very typical for the elegiac style of rhapsodies is the use of verse dividers (xi 兮, xie 些 or zhi 只) that were used to express a kind of sighing. The language of these early rhapsodies is very emotional and is woven in a very dense and picturesque way, with deep personal thoughts expressed in metaphors and symbols. Questions and answers were paired in verses, but Song Yu's rhapsodies, and some of Qu Yuan, are very descriptive. In his rhapsody Funiao fu 鵩鳥賦 "The owl", for instance, Jia Yi converses with an owl that elucidates to him the mysteries of life. The rhapsody Zhao yinshi 招隱士 "Invitation of a hidden worthy" a person with the pseudonym Huainan Xiaoshan 淮南小山 describes a landscape. Mei Sheng's 枚乘 (died 140 BCE) Qifa 七發 "Seven discoveries" are written as a parable in which a physician cures the crown prince, but in fact criticised the diseases by which the court is befallen.
Younger scholars see the elegiac rhapsodies as a poetic genre separate from the proper rhapsodies. Many great Han-period poets also wrote elegiac rhapsodies, like Jia Yi (Funiao fu, Diao Qu Yuan fu 吊屈原賦), Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 (179-117 BCE; Changmen fu 長門賦), Zhang Heng 張衡 (78-139; Sixuan fu 思玄賦) and Cai Yong 蔡邕 (132 or 133—192; Shuxing fu 述行賦).
The term "Han rhapsody" (Han fu) designates the eminent rhapsodies of the Han period whose age begins with Mei Cheng's poetic cycle Qifa. More than 900 rhapsodies were written during the Han period, composed by 60 masters. The most important representatives of Han period rhapsodies are Sima Xiangru (Zixu fu 子虛賦, Daren fu 大人賦, Meiren fu 美人賦 and Changmen fu), Yang Xiong 揚雄 (53 BCE—18 CE; Shudu fu 蜀都賦, Ganquan fu 甘泉賦, Hedong fu 河東賦, Yulie fu 羽獵賦, Changyang fu 長楊賦), Ban Gu (Liangdu fu "The two capitals": Xifu fu 西都賦 "The western capital" and Dongdu fu 東都賦 "The eastern capital"; and the Youtong fu 幽通賦) and Zhang Heng (Liangjing fu 兩京賦).
The typical feature of Han-period rhapsodies is their strong narrative appeal, featuring very detailed descriptions of specific locations and activities. These rhapsodies are often very lengthy and written in an extremely dense style, packed with information about minute details. The language used is rich and beautiful, employing ancient expressions and rare characters. As a result, rhapsodies were regarded as a highly elegant and refined genre of literature, traditionally recited during special ceremonial occasions. The texts are frequently arranged in a question-and-answer pattern or in a way that successive sentences relate to one another. The language gives the impression of prose rather than poetry. The "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu) are shorter, with briefer verses, and utilise a more direct style of language and description.
Ban Gu's Liangdu fu describes the palaces of the Western Capital Chang'an 長安 (modern Xi'an 西安, Shaanxi) and the Eastern Capital Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang, Henan), as well as the activities of the court during rituals, banquets, dances, and imperial hunts. It praises the glory of the Han dynasty and its courtiers and ministers. In this function, it can be compared with the Shijing hymns and odes. Some verses subtly criticise the court's extravagance, though not too openly. The Liangdu fu was later imitated by Zhang Heng (Erdu fu 二都賦) and Zuo Si 左思 (250-305; Sandu fu 三都賦).
| 建金城而萬雉，呀周池而成淵。披三條之廣路，立十二之通門。內則街衢洞達，閭閻且千。九市開場，貨別隧分。人不得顧，車不得旋。闐城溢郭，旁流百廛。紅塵四合，煙雲相連。於是既庶且富，娛樂無疆。都人士女，殊異乎五方。遊士擬於公侯，列肆侈於姬姜。鄉曲豪舉，游俠之雄。節慕原嘗，名亞春陵。連交合眾，騁騖乎其中。 | They erected a metal fortress a myriad spans long, Dredged the surrounding moat to form a gaping chasm, Cleared broad avenues three lanes wide, Placed twelve gates for passage in and out. Within, the city was pierced by roads and streets, With ward gates and portals nearly a thousand. In the nine markets they set up bazaars, Their wares separated by type, their shop rows distinctly divided There was no room for people to turn their heads, Or for chariots to wheel about. People crammed into the city, spilled into the suburbs, Everywhere streaming into the hundreds of shops. Red dust gathered in all directions; Smoke blended with the clouds. Thus, the people being both numerous and rich, There was gaiety and pleasure without end. The men and women of the capital Were the most distinctive of the five regions. Men of pleasure compared with dukes and marquises; Shopgirls were dressed more lavishly than ladies Ji or Jiang. The stalwarts from the villages, The leaders of the knights-errant, Whose sense of honor emulated Lords Pingyuan and Mengchang, Whose fame equalled that of Lords Chunshen and Xinling, Joined in bands, gathered in groups, Raced and galloped within their midst. |
| 若乃觀其四郊，浮遊近縣，則南望杜霸，北眺五陵。名都對郭，邑居相承。英俊之域，紱冕所興。冠蓋如雲，七相五公。與乎州郡之豪傑，五都之貨殖。三選七遷，充奉陵邑。蓋以強幹弱枝，隆上都而觀萬國也。 | If then one gazes upon the surrounding suburbs, Travels to the nearby prefectures, Then to the south he may gaze on Du and Ba, To the north he may espy the Five Mausoleums, Where famous cities face Chang'an's outskirts, And village residences connect one to another. It is the region of the prime and superior talents, Where official sashes and hats flourish, Where caps and canopies are as thick as clouds. Seven chancellors, five ministers, Along with the powerful clans of the provinces and commanderies, And the plutocrats of the Five Capitals, Those selected from the three categories, transferred to seven locations, Were assigned to make offerings at the mausoleum towns. This was to strengthen the trunk and weaken the branches, To exalt the Supreme Captial and show it off to the myriad states. |
Knechtges 1982, vol. 1, 103-109. |
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Sima Xiangru's Zixu and Zilin are two parts of a single rhapsody titled Tianzi youlie fu 天子游獵賦 "The imperial hunt." In style, this piece employs numerous extraordinary words and characters to describe the court, its people, and proceedings with flowery language and beautiful expressions. None of Mei Gao's 120 rhapsodies have survived. Dongfang Shuo's 東方朔 (154-93 BCE) Qijian 七諫 "Seven admonitions" is written in an ancient elegiac style, but his Da ke nan 答客難 and Feiyou xiansheng lun 非有先生論 are two innovative texts, though not titled as rhapsodies. Wang Bao's 王褒 Dongxiao fu 洞簫賦 and Jiuhai 九懷 are also notable, the former as a "lesser-style" rhapsody focusing on music, and the latter as a text in the tradition of the "Songs of the South". Yang Xiong, who lived at the end of the Former Han period, authored some outstanding rhapsodies, namely Ganquan fu, Hedong fu, Yulie fu, and Changyang fu. They follow in the tradition of Sima Xiangru's writings but are much more openly critical of the extravagant lifestyle of the elite and their suppression of the lower classes. The rhapsodies Zhupin fu 逐貧賦 and Jiufu 酒賦 attack the luxury of the capital Chang'an. His Jiechao 解嘲 was influenced by Dongfang Shuo.
After the mid-Eastern Han period 東漢 (25-220 CE), the "greater-style" rhapsody declined, with social issues and individual worldviews becoming central to writers. This trend is also evident in the poetry of the style yuefu 樂府 "Songs of the Music Bureau" that flourished during the Later Han. Zhang Heng's Erdu fu remains in the tradition of Ban Gu's great rhapsody on the two capitals but is more critical of the ruling elites' extravagance, which starkly contrasts with the poverty of common folk. His Guitian fu 歸田賦 reflects many literati's wish to abandon official careers amidst eunuch-dominated court politics. This rhapsody concerns everyday matters rather than court rituals, exemplifying the shift towards writing "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu) rather than "greater rhapsodies" (dafu). An earlier example of abandoning the court and moving to the countryside is Ban Biao's 班彪 (3-54 CE) Beizheng fu 北征賦 "Northward journey".
| 遊都邑以永久，無明略以佐時。徒臨川以羨魚，俟河清乎未期。感蔡子之慷慨，從唐生以決疑。諒天道之微昧，追漁父以同嬉。超埃塵以遐逝，與世事乎長辭。 | In the capital I have spent an eternity, With nary a wise plan to aid the world. In vain have I stood on the riverbank admiring the fish, And futilely waited for the Yellow River to run clear. I feel the same frustrations as Cai Ze [who did not find employment at one of the regional courts], Who found a [physiognomer] Tang Ju to resolve his doubts [predicting him a long life]. But the Way of Heaven is obscure and difficult to know, And thus I join the Fisherman and share my joys with him. Rising above the dust and dirt, I shall travel afar, And bid a final farewell to worldly affairs. |
| 於是仲春令月，時和氣清。原隰鬱茂，百草滋榮。王雎鼓翼，鶬鶊哀鳴。交頸頡頏，關關嚶嚶。於焉逍遙，聊以娛情。 | Then In the finest month of mid-spring, When the weather is fair and the air clear, On highland and lowland vegetation luxuriantly grows, And all plants profusely bloom. The osprey thrums his wings, The oriole sadly calls. Neck to neck, they soar and swoop, Crying gwa gwa, yee yee. Among them I freely wander, And thereby cheer my spirits. |
| 爾乃龍吟方澤，虎嘯山丘。仰飛纖繳，俯釣長流。觸矢而斃，貪餌吞鉤。落雲間之逸禽，懸淵沈之魦鰡。 | And now, I am a dragon singing in the great marsh, A tiger howling in the mountains and hills. Above, I let fly my slender arrow-cord, Below, I angle in a long-flowing stream. Struck by the arrow, a bird falls; Craving the bait, a fish swallows the hook. I fell a stray bird from among the clouds; Dangle from my line gobies and minnows from the depths. |
| 于時曜靈俄景，係以望舒。極般遊之至樂，雖日夕而忘劬。感老氏之遺誡，將迴駕乎蓬廬。 | And then, the Spirit of Brightness suddenly shifts its rays, And is soon followed by Wangshu, [the charioteer of the moon]. I am so enthralled by the perfect pleasure of rambling and roaming, Even as the sun sets, I am oblivious of fatigue. Moved by the warning left by Laozi, I shall turn my carriage back to my thatched hut. |
| 彈五弦之妙指，詠周孔之圖書。揮翰墨以奮藻，陳三皇之軌模。苟縱心於物外，安知榮辱之所如？ | I strum the sublime airs of the five-stringed zither,
Recite the writings of [the Duke of] Zhou and Kong [i.e., Confucius].
I take up brush and ink to write,
To set forth the patterns of the |
Knechtges 1996, vol. 3, 139-143. |
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Zhao Yi's 趙壹 (late 2nd cent. CE) Cishi jixie fu 刺世嫉邪賦 is a highly critical rhapsody expressing doubts about the morality of the ruling elite. Cai Yong's Shuxing fu 述形賦 describes court corruption, eunuch mismanagement, and the suffering of ordinary people. Mi Heng 禰衡 (173-198), near the end of the Han period, wrote the Yingwu fu 鸚鵡賦 "The parrots," feeling that the disaster of the dynasty's ruin was imminent.
Although Han rhapsodies reached their peak as a high-standing genre of courtly literature, they also became a means for personal expression and social critique. Critics argue that the genre shifted from mainly expressing reverent admiration of great causes (qingyi 情義) to emphasising superficial appearances (xingshi 事形), a view expressed by the Western Jin 西晉 266–316 scholar Zhi Yu 摯虞 (240-311).
Rhapsodies written in couplets (pianwen 駢文) were also called paifu 俳賦 "juggling rhapsodies". They were born during the late Han and flourished during the Jin and the Southern Dynasties period 南朝 (420~589). Emperor Wen 魏文帝 (r. 220-226) of the Cao-Wei dynasty 曹魏 (220-265), as a writer known under his private name Cao Pi 曹丕, has written the literary critique Dianlun 典論, in which he says that "poems and rhapsodies must be beautiful" (shi fu yu li 詩賦欲麗). This means that beauty was mainly achieved in the right composition of words.
In the early phase of the period of division (220-581), the text of rhapsodies was embellished with couplets or paired sentences. In the later phase these paired sentences even became subject to a strict regulation of syllables of four of six, and two sentences were subject to a common rhyme that was even subject to strict phonetic rules.
This was a deep stylistic change compared with the high time of rhapsodies during the Han period, when rhapsodies were written in a free language with relatively long sentences of a different number of words. Except these formalistic criteria, the text of rhapsodies had to consist of flowery and elegant language, an endless stream of detailed descriptions like a garden of flowers or a piece of brocade. This type of literature is much closer to what is today understood as a "poem", while earlier rhapsodies were actually a type of formalised prose text.
Of the Seven Masters of the Jian'an Reign (Jian'an qizi 建安七子), only Wang Can 王粲 (177-217) used to write in the ancient style of the Han rhapsodies. Cao Zhi 曹植 (192-232; Luoshen fu 洛神賦) and the Jin period master Lu Ji made already extensive use of rhymed sentences and "void" syllables to fill verses and to acheive a fluent and pleasantly harmonious style. Shen Yue 沈約 (441-513) from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) wrote only in four-syllable verses. Xu Ling 徐陵 (507-583) and Yu Jianwu 庾肩吾 (487-551; Xiaoyuan fu 小園賦) finally introduced paired verses. Seen from the content, the "greater" rhapsodies (dafu) of the Han period were concerned with the description of capitals, palaces and gardens, with hunts and ritual activities. Rhapsodies of the Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period were "lesser" rhapsodies talking about private emotions and feelings, daily activities and peculiar matters. Their number also increased drastically.
From the Jian'an reign 建安 (196-219) alone, more than 150 rhapsodies have survived, with Cao Zhi having authored about a third. The themes shifted to descriptions of social circumstances rather than grand court events and rituals. Examples of Wei- and Jin-period rhapsodies in this style include Wang Can's Fuhuai fu 浮淮賦, Ruan Yu's 阮瑀 (d. 212) Jizheng fu 紀征賦, Xu Gan's 徐幹 (171-218) Xizheng fu 西征賦, Chen Lin's 陳琳 (d. 217) Wujun fu 武軍賦, and Cao Pi's Linwo fu 臨渦賦. Rhapsodies with a strong emotional tone include Wang Can's Denglou fu 登樓賦 and Cao Zhi's Luoshen fu 洛神賦. This trend was further developed by Wei-period writers like Ji Kang's 嵇康 (223-262) rhapsody Qin fu 琴賦 "The zither". He Yan 何晏 (190-249) created in his Jingfudian fu 景福殿賦 one of the last "great-style" rhapsodies depicting imperial palaces. Ruan Ji 阮籍 (210-263) criticised the mundane man in his Miyuan fu 獼猴賦 "The monkeys" and directly attacked the brutal scheming of the Sima family 司馬 (see Sima Yi 司馬懿) in his Jiu fu 鳩賦 "The dove".
Fu Xuan's 傅玄 (217-278) over 50 rhapsodies from the Western Jin period are excellent works aligned with earlier writers but lack originality. Examples include Feng fu 風賦 "Wind", Dayan fu 大言賦, Qin fu 琴賦 "The zither", Tanqi fu 彈棋賦 "Playing chess", and Chan fu 蟬賦 "The cicada". Other "lesser-style" rhapsodies of the Western Jin period include Pan Yue's 潘岳 (247-300) Xizheng fu 西征賦, Qiuxing fu 秋興賦, Lu Ji's Haoshi fu 豪士賦, Wen fu 文賦, Chenggong Sui's 成公綏 (231-273) Su fu 嘯賦, and Mu Hua's 木華 Hai fu 海賦. They excelled in using beautiful and elegant language. Zuo Si created one of the last "greater" rhapsodies, the Sandu fu.
Among the Eastern Jin period 東晉 (317-420) rhapsodies, some innovative pieces are notable, such as Yuan Hong's 袁宏 (328-376) Dongzheng fu 東征賦, Guo Pu's 郭璞 (276-324) Jiang fu 江賦, Sun Chuo's 孫綽 (320-377) You Tiantaishan fu 游天臺山賦, and Tao Yuanming's 陶淵明 (c. 365-427) rhapsodies Xianqing fu 閒情賦 and Ganshi buyu fu 感士不遇賦.
During the Tang period 唐 (618-907), the state examinations were introduced as one mode to select candidates for state offices. The examinations required that examinees be able to write rhapsodies. In the examination curriculum, these rhapsodies were called lüfu "rhymed rhapsodies" because they had to be written in the refined style of the couplet texts, with a strong emphasis on sound, verse, and rhythm. The rhapsody Pei fu lao liu Han Gaozu fu 沛父老留漢高祖賦 by Wang Qi 王棨 (jinshi degree 862), for instance, was written in eight stanzas that exclusively make use of eight rhymes, and no more. Rhapsodies had first been used in state examinations during the Sui period 隋 (581-618). At that time, there were not yet any rules for the composition of rhymed or rhythmic verses in rhapsodies. One of the earliest examples of a verse-rhapsody is Wang Bo's 王勃 (650-677) Han wu qi feng fu 寒梧棲鳳賦 that instrumentalised the rhymes yu 孤, qing 清, ye 夜 and yue 月. From this example, it can be seen that the use of lüfu was not restricted to the state examinations, but was very popular among writers and literati. Feng Jian's 馮鑒 book Wenti zhiyao 文體指要 from the Five Dynasties period 五代 (907-960) about literary genres (quoted in Wu Ceng's 吳曾 Nenggaizhai manlu 能改齋漫錄) says that in the early Tang, there were still no strict rules for lüfu texts. It seems that from 714 on, the writings of rhymed rhapsodies became part and parcel of the examinations (as shifu 試賦 "examination rhapsodies"). Wang Qiu's 王丘 (died 743) Qifu 旗賦 "The flag" is the earliest surviving example of this kind of literature, with eight rhymes. In later years more and more rules and restrictions were invented, even for the content: It was prescribed that the themes of a rhapsody were to be taken from the four categories of literature. The number of rhymes ranged between 2 and 17, yet in some cases, it was sufficient to use a tone pitch in the sense of a rhyme. Rhymed rhapsodies became so popular that even high-standing writers like Bai Juyi 白居易 (772-846), his brother Bai Xingjian 白行簡 (776-826), Jia Su 賈餗 (died 835), Wang Qi 王起 (760-847) and Huang Tao 黃滔 (840-911) professed in the writing of lüfu rhapsodies, yet experts rate their quality as mediocre.
When eight rhymes were used, it was prescribed that they alternated between a level tone (ping 平) and a falling tone (ze 仄). This pattern was even decreed in an edict by Emperor Taizong 宋太宗 (r. 976-997) of the Song dynasty 宋 (960-1279) in 984. Similar to the infamous eight-legged essay (baguwen 八股文) that was required during the examinations of the Ming 明 (1368-1644) and Qing 清 (1644-1911) periods, lüfu rhapsodies were never a commonly used type of literature. They only served as a means of assessment in the examinations. The Ming-period scholar Xu Shiceng 徐師曾 (1517-1580) even states in his book Wenti mingbian 文體明辨 that the literary quality of the rhapsodies declined with the invention of the lüfu. The use of rhymes in rhapsodies began with Shen Yue, Xu Ling and Yu Jianwu during the Southern Dynasties period 南朝 (420~589) and was then fully used from the Sui period on.
Prose rhapsodies (wenfu) were created during the Song period as a reaction to the overloaded couplet style that was made use of in the lüfu "rhymed rhapsodies" of the Tang and early Song periods. This development is congruent with the "return" to a plain, simple, and unadorned language, which was called guwen 古文 "old-style literature" (today referred to as guwen yundong 古文運動 "ancient style movement"). In his book Gufu bianti 古賦辨體, the Yuan-period 元 (1279-1368) scholar Zhu Yao 祝堯 explains that there were basically two types of writing during the Song period, namely rhymed or "paired" writings (paiti 俳體), and plain-style writings (wenti 文體). Rhapsodies belonged to the latter category.
The literary movement to go back to a simple style of writings had already been initiated by mid-Tang period writers like Han Yu 韓愈 (768-824) and Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 (773-819). Some of their writings are, in fact, rhapsodies written in the ancient style of the Han period. Still, their titles do not include the word "rhapsody" (Jinxue jie 進學解, Wenda 答問, She yu zhe dui Zhi Bo 設漁者對智伯) because the contemporary understanding of what a rhapsody is, was different. The oldest Tang period rhapsody written in the ancient, simple style was Epanggong fu 阿房宮賦 by Du Mu 杜牧 (803-852).
During the early Song period writers of the Xikun School 西崑派 continued to use the rhymed style for rhapsodies. However, the influential writer Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 (1007-1072) supported the "ancient literature" movement, which contributed to the decline of the rhymed rhapsody. His most important writing in this field was the Qiusheng fu 秋聲賦. Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037-1101) later also wrote rhapsodies in the ancient style, the two most famous of which were called Qian Chibi fu 前赤壁賦 and Hou Chibi fu 後赤壁賦. These early Song-period wenfu rhapsodies are characterised by descriptions of landscape, the expression of emotions, the narration of actions, and the discussion of specific themes. Their authors can be credited with the merit of having led back the rhapsody into the genre of prose writings, and away from poetry. On the other hand, the literary quality of Song-period prose rhapsodies is assessed as being below that of their Han-period forerunners. While stylistic patterns were retained, the wording was perceived as missing the attractiveness of poems. Yuan-period persons like Zhu Yao felt a kind of inconsistency in the hybrid form of the prose rhapsody that was neither real prose nor poetry. This impression might have contributed to the gradual disinterest of writers in the genre of rhapsodies after the end of the Song period